3 Moral and Ethical Relativism
Hunter Aiken
Table of Contents
Introduction
In this brief yet famous paragraph of Herodotus’s, he makes what at first appears to be a very straightforward argument: morality and ethics are dictated by the customs and culture that you happened to grow up with. In other words, culture and custom is the source for our views about right and wrong. But there is much more to his argument than just this. On Herodotus’s view, there appears to be an irresolvable disagreement between people about what is right and what is wrong (Herodotus 1920).
Pay attention to Herodotus’s (1920) claim that if we were to ask each culture around the world who has the best customs, norms, or values, it is likely that each culture would say that theirs is the best. Herodotus demonstrates this point by considering the different ways that the Greeks and Callatiae honour their dead. His purpose in using this is to show us how two different cultures with different customs each find what the other does to be terrible. Both think that how the other person honours their dead is not honouring them at all. In fact, they think it is deeply disrespectful and abhorrent. Thus, each group with their different cultural backgrounds, has a relative view of morality (Herodotus 1920).
Right and wrong is relative to their cultural background, and thus, each thinks their practices are the best.
Reading
[From The Histories, Book 3, Chapter 38, Section 1 (Herodotus 1920)]
Herodotus: Custom is King
I hold it then in every way proved that Cambyses was quite insane; or he would never have set himself to deride religion and custom. For if it were proposed to all nations to choose which seemed best of all customs, each, after examination, would place its own first; so well is each convinced that its own are by far the best. It is not therefore to be supposed that anyone, except a madman, would turn such things to ridicule. I will give this one proof among many from which it may be inferred that all men hold this belief about their customs. When Darius was king, he summoned the Greeks who were with him and asked them for what price they would eat their fathers’ dead bodies. They answered that there was no price for which they would do it. Then Darius summoned those Indians who are called Callatiae, who eat their parents, and asked them (the Greeks being present and understanding through interpreters what was said) what would make them willing to burn their fathers at death. The Indians cried aloud, that he should not speak of so horrid an act. So firmly rooted are these beliefs; and it is, I think, rightly said in Pindar’s poem that custom is lord of all.1
Discussion Questions
- Do you think Herodotus’s example of how the Greeks and Callatiae honour their dead is good enough to prove that ‘custom is lord of all?’ Why or why not?
- Give an argument in favour of Herodotus and then an argument against Herodotus. Which do you find more persuasive, and why?
- What do you think of the idea that both the Greeks and Callatiae have the shared practice of honouring their dead, but they have different views on the correct way to do it? Do you think that this supports Herodotus’s argument or not?
- How might Herodotus’s claims of morality be influenced, supported, or countered by multiculturalism, globalization, or immigration?
- What is an example from your own background that makes you think Herodotus is right wrong? Explain why.
Thought Experiments
- The Omniscient Judge
- Suppose that you were to meet a person who had omniscient powers and knew everything about the different histories, cultures, and societal contexts throughout the world. Now, suppose you were to ask this entity to make a moral judgement about a contentious issue (e.g. capital punishment, lying, or stealing). Is it possible that this person makes an objective moral claim, or would they side with moral relativism?
- The Moral Astronaut
- Imagine you are an explorer who discovers a distant planet inhabited by intelligent beings with a moral code drastically different from any on Earth. On this planet, what we consider morally abhorrent (e.g., dishonesty and violence) is celebrated, and what we consider virtuous (e.g., kindness and honesty) is frowned upon. Should we judge the moral code of this planet by our own moral standards, or should we accept their practices as morally valid in their own cultural context?
- Universal Law
- Suppose you are tasked with writing a law intended to be a universal human right that applies to everyone in the world irrespective of their culture, history, or background. Do you think it is possible to write such a law?
- The Unbiased Observer
- Imagine a person who has no cultural bias and no affiliations with any particular society. Now, imagine that this same person was asked to judge the norms, morality, and ethical behaviour of different cultures. What do you think this person would say about slavery, murder, and theft?
Further Reading
- A Defense of Ethical Relativism by Ruth Benedict (1934)
- “Why Morality is Not Relative” (pp. 14–31 in Elements of Moral Philosophy) by James Rachels (2007)
- “Moral Relativism and Meta-Ethics” by Paul Rezkalla (2019)
Bibliography
Benedict, Ruth. 1934. A Defense of Ethical Relativism. Journal of General Psychology. “Anthropology and the Abnormal,” 10. Retrieved from https://philosophysmith.com/wp-content/uploads/2018/07/ruth-benedict-22-a-defense-of-ethical-relativism22.pdf.
Herodotus. 1920. “Book 3 – Chapter 38.” In The Histories, translated by A.D. Godley. Vol. 3. Cambridge: Harvard University Press. http://www.perseus.tufts.edu/hopper/text?doc=urn:cts:greekLit:tlg0016.tlg001.perseus-eng1:3.38.1.
Rachels, James. 2007. The Elements of Moral Philosophy / James Rachels. Boston: McGraw-Hill. https://research-ebsco-com.ezproxy.tru.ca/linkprocessor/plink?id=0845bf50-90a3-39ce-9d08-5d4042ad87da.
How to Cite This Page
Aiken, Hunter. 2024. “Moral and Ethical Relativism.” In Introduction to Ethics, edited by Jenna Woodrow, Hunter Aiken, and Calum McCracken. Kamloops, BC: TRU Open Press. https://introductiontoethics.pressbooks.tru.ca/chapter/moral-and-ethical-relativism/.
Attribution
Unless otherwise noted, The Histories, Book 3, Chapter 38, Section 1 by Herodotus (1920) [translated by A. D. Godley], via the Perseus Digital Library, is used under a CC BY-SA 3.0 US license.
